托福tpo41阅读答案(2)

时间：2024-03-14 05:05:54 谢桦2 英语答案

　　tpo41阅读题及答案3：Amphibian Thermoregulation

　　In contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However, the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature. While amphibians are poor thermoregulators, they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.

　　Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures rise to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian. Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions).

　　Frog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal (daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that function as morphological adaptations. Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation, thus providing protection against overheating. The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation (dehydration).

　　However, behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation. The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking (heliothermy), heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth (thigmothermy), and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors, which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating (reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively) Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads: it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than 10°C. The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means, long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed. A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight, thus also accelerating growth. Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians, although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose: heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin. The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall: its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.

　　Avoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range. Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance. Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians. Species

　　whose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter, while species dwelling in semi- and regions are exposed to long dry, hot periods in summer.

　　In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost. North of the Pyrenees Mountains, the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation, passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground. Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry, hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperature. Amphibians are therefore hardly at mercy of ambient temperature, since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than )exercise some control over their body temperature.

　　paragraph 1

　　In contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However, the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature While amphibians are poor thermoregulators, they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.

　　1.According to paragraph 1, what indicates that amphibians have some control over their body temperature？

　　A. Amphibians can regulate their metabolic rates to generate energy.

　　B. Amphibians use the same means of thermoregulation as mammals and birds do.

　　C. The body temperature of amphibians sometimes differs from the temperature of their surroundings.

　　D. The body temperature of amphibians is independent of their metabolic activity.

　　paragraph 2

　　Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures rise to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions)

　　2.Why does the author mention a “South American frog” species in the passage？

　　A. To make the point that an amphibian’s temperature tolerance depends on a number of factors

　　B. To indicate how precise the range of body temperatures is for certain amphibians

　　C. To contrast its ability to adapt to that of the North American newt

　　D. To help illustrate the range of environmental conditions to which amphibians have adapted

　　3. According to paragraph 2, what allows some North American frog and toad species to survive in ambient temperatures well below freezing？

　　A. Their internal body temperatures never fall below -6°C.

　　B. They do not remain at temperatures below freezing for very long periods of time.

　　C. Their tolerance boundaries are flexible

　　D. Some of their body tissues contain substances that prevent freezing.

　　paragraph 3

　　Frog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal (daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that function as morphological adaptations. Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation, thus providing protection against overheating The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation (dehydration).

　　4. “Phyllomedusa sauvager ” is mentioned as an example of a frog with an adaptation that

　　A. protects its glandular system

　　B. helps reduce its secretions

　　C. increases the amount of solar radiation that its skin can reflect

　　D. modifies its skin structure to protect against the drying effects of the sun

　　paragraph 4

　　However, behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation. The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking (heliothermy), heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth (thigmothermy), and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors, which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating (reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively) Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads: it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than 10°C. The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means, long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed. A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight, thus also accelerating growth Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians, although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.

　　5. Paragraph 4 mentions each of the following as an example of behavioral thermoregulation EXCEPT

　　A. pressing against the ground

　　B. speeding up of the metabolism

　　C. reducing activity during the summer

　　D. adjusting exposure to the sun

　　6. The “Andean toad Bufo spinulosus” illustrates which of the following behavioral modifications？

　　A. Heliothermy and thigmothermy

　　B. Diurnal avoidance behavior

　　C. Absorbing heat from the air

　　D. Moving to shelter during the summer

　　7. The word “attains” in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　A. raises

　　B. lowers

　　C. reaches

　　D. regulates

　　8. The phrase “this approach” in the passage refers to

　　A gradually increasing body temperature by 10°C

　　B. basking as soon as the sun comes up

　　C. waiting for the ground and air to warm

　　D. keeping body temperature above the temperature of the air

　　paragraph 5

　　Avoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance. Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians. Species whose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter, while species dwelling in semi- and regions are exposed to long dry, hot periods in summer.

　　9. According to paragraph 5, why is avoidance behavior important for some amphibians？

　　A. Amphibians’ habitats are areas where temperatures vary from day to day.

　　B. Amphibians have less tolerance for high ambient temperatures than for low ambient temperatures.

　　C. Amphibians lack adequate physiological adaptations for dealing with ambient temperatures.

　　D. Amphibians cannot protect themselves from the extreme summer heat by being active only at night.

　　10. The word “dwelling” in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　A. arriving

　　B. originating

　　C. evolving

　　D. living

　　paragraph 6

　　In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost North of the Pyrenees Mountains, the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation, passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground. Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry, hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperature. Amphibians are therefore hardly at mercy of ambient temperature, since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than exercise some control over their body temperature.

　　11. In paragraph 6, which of the following can be inferred from the discussion of the natterjack？

　　A. Amphibians have greater tolerance for heat than for cold.

　　B. Desiccation is not a threat to amphibians

　　C. Both hibernation and estivation may serve as avoidance behaviors depending on the climate

　　D. Some species of amphibians are active only in the spring and in the fall

　　12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage？ Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

　　A. Thus, although amphibians use the various mechanisms described above, they have hardly any control of their body temperature

　　B. Thus, by the mechanisms described above, amphibians are quite capable of controlling their body temperature to survive extreme ambient temperatures.

　　C. Thus, unless they can use the mechanisms described above, amphibians are at the mercy of ambient temperatures.

　　D. Thus, the mechanisms described above give amphibians control over much more than just their body temperature

　　13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

　　On the other hand, amphibians in very hot climates use secretions from the mucus glands to decrease their temperature through evaporative cooling on the skin.

　　Where would the sentence best fit？ Click on square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.

　　Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures measured to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian. [■] Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. [■] The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose. [■] Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible

　　and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions).[■]

　　14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.

　　Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text.

　　A number of factors may help account for the difference in biodiversity between low and high latitudes.

　　Answer Choices

　　A. Frogs, which survive temperature ranges from as low as -2°C to as high as 41°C, are evidence that amphibians are independent of ambient temperatures

　　B. Amphibians can increase their body temperature by exposing themselves to the sun (heliothermy) and by pressing against the ground (thigmothermy).

　　C. Avoidance behaviors, such as sheltering from the sun, as well as estivation and hibernation，help amphibians control their body temperature.

　　D. Physical adaptations offer amphibians a number of ways to protect against extreme or dangerous climate conditions.

　　E. Sunrise is the time when some amphibian species have the greatest need for thermoregulatory mechanisms.

　　F. Hibernation always involves digging deep holes in mud or sand, whereas estivation sometimes involves nothing more than hiding in deep rock crevasses

　　tpo41阅读题及答4：Trade and Early State Formation

　　Bartering was a basic trade mechanism for many thousands of years; often sporadic and usually based on notions of reciprocity, it involved the mutual exchange of commodities or objects between individuals or groups. Redistribution of these goods through society lay in the hands of chiefs, religious leaders, or kin groups. Such redistribution was a basic element in chiefdoms. The change from redistribution to formal trade—often based on regulated commerce that perhaps involved fixed prices and even currency—was closely tied to growing political and social complexity and hence to the development of the state in the ancient world.

　　In the 1970s, a number of archaeologists gave trade a primary role in the rise of ancient states. British archaeologist Colin Renfrew attributed the dramatic flowering of the Minoan civilization on Crete and through the Aegean to intensified trading contacts and to the impact of olive and vine cultivation on local communities. As agricultural economies became more diversified and local food supplies could be purchased both locally and over longer distances, a far-reaching economic interdependence resulted. Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries and basic commodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. As time went on, the self-sufficiency of communities was replaced by mutual dependence. Interest in long-distance trade brought about some cultural homogeneity from trade and gift exchange, and perhaps even led to piracy. Thus, intensified trade and interaction, and the flowering of specialist crafts, in a complex process of positive feedback, led to much more complex societies based on palaces, which were the economic hubs of a new Minoan civilization.

　　Renfrew’s model made some assumptions that are now discounted. For example, he argued that the introduction of domesticated vines and olives allowed a substantial expansion of land under cultivation and helped to power the emergence of complex society. Many archaeologists and paleobotanists now question this view, pointing out that the available evidence for cultivated vines and olives suggests that they were present only in the later Bronze Age. Trade, nevertheless, was probably one of many variables that led to the emergence of palace economies in Minoan Crete.

　　American archaeologist William Rathje developed a hypothesis that considered an explosion in long-distance exchange a fundamental cause of Mayan civilization in Mesoamerica. He suggested that the lowland Mayan environment was deficient in many vital resources, among them obsidian, salt, stone for grinding maize, and many luxury materials. All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from the Valley of Mexico, and from other regions, if the necessary trading networks came into being. Such connections, and the trading expeditions to maintain them, could not be organized by individual villages. The Maya lived in a relatively uniform environment, where every community suffered from the same resource deficiencies. Thus, argued Rathje, long--distance trade networks were organized through local ceremonial centers and their leaders. In time, this organization became a state, and knowledge of its functioning was exportable, as were pottery, tropical bird feathers, specialized stone materials, and other local commodities.

　　Rathje’s hypothesis probably explains part of the complex process of Mayan state formation, but it suffers from the objection that suitable alternative raw materials can be found in the lowlands. It could be, too, that warfare became a competitive response to population growth and to the increasing scarcity of prime agricultural land, and that it played an important role in the emergence of the Mayan states.

　　Now that we know much more about ancient exchange and commerce, we know that, because

　　no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization. Many ever-changing variables affected ancient trade, among them the demand for goods. There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment. Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. Authorities at both ends might regulate the profits fed back to the source, providing the incentive for further transactions. There may or may not have been a market organization. Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.

　　Paragraph 1

　　1. The word "notions" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　A. ideas

　　B. rules

　　C. degrees

　　D. traditions

　　2. According to paragraph 1, what development occurred as political and social complexity increased？

　　A. The prices of most commodities rose.

　　B. Formal trade emerged.

　　C. Chiefs became more powerful

　　D. Bartering became the preferred means of trade.

　　Paragraph 2

　　cultivation on local communities. As agricultural economies became more diversified and local food supplies could be purchased both locally and over longer distances, a far-reaching economic interdependence resulted. Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries and basic commodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. As time went on, the self-sufficiency of communities was replaced by mutual dependence. Interest in long-distance trade brought about some cultural homogeneity from trade and gift exchange, and perhaps even led to piracy. Thus, intensified trade and interaction, and the flowering of specialist crafts, in a complex process of positive feedback, led to much more complex societies based on palaces, which were the economic hubs of a new Minoan civilization.

　　3. The word “diversified” in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　A. organized

　　B. selective

　　C. varied

　　D. efficient

　　4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following controlled the systems of redistribution of goods in ancient Crete？

　　A. Local community leaders

　　B. Olive growers

　　C. Minoan rulers

　　D. Long-distance traders

　　5. According to paragraph 2, Renfrew believed that one effect of long-distance trade in the Aegean was

　　A. a greater effort to control piracy

　　B. greater cultural similarity throughout the region

　　C. a decline in local olive production

　　D. a decline in the use of luxuries for gift exchanges

　　Paragraph 3

　　6. According to paragraph 3, what was a major problem with Renfrew’s model？

　　A. He overlooked the fact that only the Minoan palaces had access to domesticated vines and olives.

　　B. He wrongly assumed that the introduction of domesticated vines and olives led to the cultivation of more land.

　　C. Trade in domesticated plants was much more important to the emergence of Minoan palace economies than he thought.

　　D. Domesticated vines and olives do not appear to have been available as early as he thought

　　Paragraph 4

　　7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was true about ancient Mayan communities？

　　A. They each created their own separate trading networks with communities in the nearby highlands.

　　B. They all had many luxury materials that they were able to trade for resources that they lacked.

　　C. They all needed to obtain a number of important materials through trade with other regions.

　　D. They all gradually reduced their trading activities with communities in the Valley of Mexico and developed trading networks with other regions.

　　8. What can be inferred from the fact that the Maya lived in a “relatively uniform environment”？

　　A. The communities could not obtain resources they lacked by trading with each other.

　　B. The communities’ ceremonial centers were all organized in much the same way.

　　C. Increased competition between the communities to export their local commodities expanded commercial networks beyond the nearby highlands.

　　D. Different communities tended to specialize in the production of different commodities.

　　Paragraph 5

　　Paragraph 4

　　-distance trade networks were organized through local ceremonial centers and their leaders. In time, this organization became a state, and knowledge of its functioning was exportable, as were pottery, tropical bird feathers, specialized stone materials, and other local commodities.

　　9. The word “prime” in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　A. low-lying

　　B. easily accessible

　　C. unused

　　D. high-quality

　　10. What is the role of paragraph 5 in relation to paragraph 4？

　　A. It restates the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4 and reinforces it with further evidence.

　　B. It presents evidence that the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 confuses cause and effect.

　　C. It presents a critical assessment of the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4.

　　D. It explains how the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 was initially formulated.

　　Paragraph 6

　　Now that we know much more about ancient exchange and commerce, we know that, because no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization. Many ever-changing variables affected ancient trade, among them the demand for goods. There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment. Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. Authorities at both ends might regulate the profits fed back to the source, providing the incentive for further transactions. There may or may not have been a market organization. Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.

　　11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage？ Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

　　A. We now know that ancient trade cannot be considered a main factor in the rise of civilization, because no one aspect of it caused change in culture or commercial practices.

　　B. We now know that the growth of civilization was an important factor in causing cultural change and in improving commercial practices.

　　C. We now know much more about how ancient trade and commerce led to cultural changes and the evolution of commercial practices.

　　D. We now know much more about the main factors and agents that led to ancient civilization, because we know what aspects of trade affected culture and commercial practices.

　　12. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements about trade in ancient civilizations are true EXCEPT:

　　A. The spread of trade was influenced by many variables, none of which was the main cause.

　　B. Political conditions were more important than demand for goods in the development of trade.

　　C. Some markets had clearly established trading routes.

　　D. The regulation of profits provided incentives for future trade.

　　13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

　　But demand for locally unobtainable resources was clearly only a part of the story.

　　Where would the sentence best fit？ Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.

　　Now that we know much more about ancient exchange and commerce, we know that, because no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization. [■] Many ever-changing variables affected ancient trade, among them the demand for goods. [■] There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment. [■] Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. [■] Authorities at both ends might regulate the profits fed back to the source, providing the incentive for further transactions. There may or may not have been a market organization. Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.

　　14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

　　Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it.

　　To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.

　　Various attempts have been made to explore the role that trade played in the rise of ancient states.

　　Answer Choices

　　A. Barter, a basic trade mechanism that involved the direct exchange of goods or services, depended on a high degree of social complexity.

　　B. It was only in the 1970s that most archaeologists began to realize that the long-distance trade typical of Minoan communities varied significantly from that of lowland Mayan communities.

　　C. Renfrew and Rathje are recognized today for having correctly analyzed the basic relationship between trade and the emergence of states, even though they were wrong about many details.

　　D. Renfrew suggested that an organized state emerged in Minoan Crete because of intensified trade,

　　but current views indicate that trade was probably only one of many variables.

　　E. Rathje's hypothesis that long-distance trade led to the emergence of a Mayan state has been objected to, and it is argued that other factors such as warfare may have played an important role too.

　　F. Current views indicate that trade was not the most important agent of ancient civilization and that long-distance trade was a result rather than a cause of complex societies.

　　托福tpo41阅读答案：

　　阅读一:1-5.BDCDB 6-10.BADAA 11-13.DCD 14.BEF

　　阅读二:1-5.CCDBC 6-10.BABCB 11-13.BDD 14.AC-BEG

　　阅读三:1-5.ABCCB 6-10.DCADC 11-13.ABB 14.DEF

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